Origins of Psychology Essay

This theory was developed by Sigmund Freud in the early 1900’s and paved the way for modern psychology in the early 1900’s. This theory deals with the deep, inner and mysterious core of the human psyche, in search of understanding the psychology of the human being. It is also closely connected with evolutionary perspectives on personality. Behaviorist : The primary focus of the behavioral perspective is on behavior and the influence of the external environment in shaping of the individual’s behavior. Teaching, therefore, refers to the environmental conditions that are arranged and presented to students. Some of the key behaviorist theorists in the field of psychology are viz. , John Watson, B. F. Skinner, and E. L. Thorndike. Teachers who draw from behaviorist theory tend towards active learning (or â€Å"learning by doing†). The teacher determines all of the skills needed to achieve the desired behavior and students learn them in a step-by-step manner. Humanist : The focus of the humanistic perspective is on the self, which translates into â€Å"YOU†, and â€Å"your† perception of â€Å"your† experiences. This veiw argues that you are free to choose your own behavior, rather than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers. Issues dealing with self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and needs are paramount. The major focus is to facilitate personal development. Two major theorists associated with this view are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Cognitive : The school of psychology that examines internal mental processes, such as creativity, perception, thinking, problem solving, memory, and language. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how a person understands, diagnoses, and solves a problem, concerning themselves with the mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response (Garvey,1999) Neuro-scientific / Bio-psychological : The neuro-scientific framework seeks to relate behavior and mind to the brain. The important overall point of a neuro-scientific perspective is that analyses of normal or abnormal function need to be informed by an understanding of the brain structures and processes that implement the function. Psychiatrists need to monitor emerging work that highlights the need for both a neuro-scientific and medical perspective in the management of complex disorders. Evolutionary : Evolutionary psychology is the science that seeks to explain through universal mechanisms of behavior why humans act the way they do. Evolutionary psychology seeks to reconstruct problems that our ancestors faced in their primitive environments, and the problem-solving mechanisms they created to meet those particular challenges. From these reconstructed problem-solving adaptations, the science then attempts to establish the common roots of our ancestral behavior, and how those common behavioral roots are manifested today in the widely scattered cultures of the planet. The goal is to understand human behavior that is universally aimed at the passing of one’s genes into the next generation. Socio-cultural : The social-cultural perspective concentrates on the culture of a group of individuals or society as a whole rather than the individual. To understand why people tend to show certain behavior traits, mental health clinicians look at what affects the community as a group of individuals might have on their own thought processes. Some of the questions pondered are if a person behaves a certain way to be accepted or commits an act because it is accepted amongst their society.

Operations Management and Csr Essay

Why are operations the most vulnerable sector of any company when considering CSR? I. Introduction As globalization continues, the earth’s natural processes transform local problems into international issues along with the development of international commercial activities. Few communities are being left untouched by major environmental issues and social problems. As one of the most active and influential elements of the human society, the business world has been required, for several decades, to shoulder more responsibility by their consumers and society in general. The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) draws more and more attention from all sectors of society, and is considered as an issue that we cannot afford to ignore. As we take into account the increasingly serious environmental problems and social issues such as inequitable growth, corporate social responsibility can no longer be used as a slogan or a tool of self-glorification, but rather as a pressing task for all companies, who contribute to these problems. In a day and age when technology allows us to be informed in real time, strategies such as â€Å"green-washing† may only accelerate the deterioration of a company’s image. Consequently, the CSR should be treated as an issue that can be solved only by creating synergies between several functions within a company. From establishing product concepts or services to manufacturing, from delivering goods to recycling waste, every single step of the process may have an enormous impact on whether a company decides to become socially responsible. For this reason operations management is at the core of the CSR discussion, given that it involves the design and control of the production process. Though the principles of operations management and that of CSR have factors in common, such as reducing waste and energy saving, the traditional vision of cutting cost as more as possible conflict with the spirit of sharing value with all shareholders, making operations management the most vulnerable function when considering CSR. The objective for operations managers, increasing profits with less resource, can be quite affected by the value of corporate social responsibility. In this essay, we try to respond the question: Why are operations the most vulnerable sector of any company when considering CSR? After presenting several main concepts and the background of this problematic, we will give three reasons to answer the question above with analysis and examples. Finally, we will put forward our proposals and previsions then come to a conclusion. II. Concepts and background 1. Corporate social responsibility Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept firstly raised by Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) and developed in the USA. According to him, a businessman should, first of all, accumulate his capital, and then distribute his fortune to society. As he said: â€Å"Man who dies rich dies disgraced†¦If you want to be happy, set a goal that commands your thoughts, liberates your energy and inspires your hopes.† (Banerjee, 2007) After this initial definition, the concept of CSR drew more attention from both academic circles and the business world in the second half of the twentieth century. According to Howard R. Bowen, enterprises should make and practice the policies that aim to create values desired by the society (Bowen, 1953). On the contrary, Milton Friedman insisted that the only duty of corporations is to augment the fortune for their shareholders. Is his article on the New York Times in 1970, he said: â€Å"The social responsibility of business is to make profit.† Since the first decade of the twenty first century Concern from governments and appeals from non-government organizations put this issue under the spot light. In 2001, the European Commission defines the CSR as â€Å"the voluntary integration of social, environmental firms in their business operations and their relationships with all internal and external stakeholders (†¦) in order to fully comply with applicable legal requirements, invest in human capital and respect its environment (ecology and territory)† (European Commission, 2001). Moreover, we can observe a combination of concepts from corporate social responsibility and sustainable development. 2. Operations management Operations management is the activity of managing the resources which produce and deliver products and services. A close relation with products and main services makes the operations function central to all kinds of organizations. It is one of the three cores of business, with the marketing (including sales) function, and the product / service development. Rather than an isolated island within a company, the operations function is involved in a high degree of interaction with others. For example, it has to keep in touch with product development function to assure that the firm has the capabilities to manufacture the design of a new product. For the same reason, there is a synergy between operations function and marketing that helps match the sales power with production. (Nigel Slack et al., 2010) The importance of this integrated way of working has been known for long time, but it is the development of information system that makes it possible. Thanks to systems like Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), companies can, on one hand, facilitate the communication with their partners and suppliers, and promote the collaboration among functions. In order to compete in an ever-changing global economy, enterprises make an emphasis on the efficiency and productivity of their manufacturing process, aiming to maximize advantages on price, quality, as well as satisfaction of costumers. The important role of operations management in the company, and the influence it exerts to other echelons of the value chain, make it crucial for managers to consider when they think about environmental and social issues. 3. Background: evolutions on global market During the last three decades, we can observe that two elements are changing rapidly in the business world, the continuous development of international trade and production, and the wide use of the Internet. We cannot talk about CSR or operations management without considering these issues. International trade and production Once a business reaches a certain economic level, it usually aspires to reach an international level (Czinkota & Ronkainen, 2004). This sort of ambition will lead to a series of actions and changes in the strategy of the operations functions. For instance, problems in adaptation to the economic environment and culture in the target country, may cause repercussions on materials sourcing or the integration of products. Even a change of format or packaging requires coordination between the marketing department and the operations function. At the same time, trans-national delivery demands a higher degree of reliability and efficiency from the supply chain, demanding significant improvements of operations management. On the other hand, more and more multinationals locate their facilities in third world countries, raising environmental and social problems in the host country. While they benefit form relatively low cost of raw material, energy and labor, these industrial giants leave behind high levels of pollution ad cause a scarcity in resources (DeTienne & Lewis, 2005). Globalization has not eliminated the inequality between countries, but rather has aggravated the problem. Wider use of Internet First, the explosion of e-commerce has profoundly altered the way we do business. Especially when we talk about selling online, satisfaction of customers is no longer determined only by products themselves, but also deeply influenced by the performance of supply chain, manifesting mainly by issues of delivery and after sale service (Lannoo & Ankri, 2007). Whether taking care of these tasks internally, or outsourcing to third-party companies, companies and their operations function will be faced with unprecedented challenges and risks. Second, the Internet serves as a tool for all members of the society to be informed, to understand and even monitor a company. In many countries like France, annual reports of listed companies are now required to include a CSR report. Along with economic performances of these firms, their contribution to communities and the environment is also be available on their official web sites. In this case, managers have to take more voluntary and effective acti ons to fulfill their promises to the public. III. Major reasons for vulnerability 1. Outside pressures There is no doubt that some of companies give priority to value creation for all shareholders such as the Body Shop. However, in reality, most companies make an effort to achieve their CSR goals largely because of increasing pressures from all sectors of society. Some of these requirements are focusing on the production process and delivery of goods, and thus put tremendous stress on the operations function. First of all, we could compare Traditional and Modern views of Corporate Social Responsibility applied to Operational Management. Within the company, operational management works as an integration of several functions such as: Engineering or Manufacturing (Inventory, Planning, Material Flow, Quality etc.), Distribution (Suppliers, Transport), accounting etc.; with interrelated operations such as: Finance, Human Resources, Marketing and etc. This can be applied to any type of organization, regardless of its sector (Manufacturing, HealthCare, Wholesaling, Retail, Banking etc.) Modern CSR approach creates vulnerabilities to Operational Management because even seemingly insignificant change or disturbance in one participant (function) can influence whole loop of Supply Chain, which can therefore negatively influence company’s behavior in regards to Social Corporate Responsibility and even affect the goals for efficient Operations Management. There are eight possible competitive priorities (goals), which fall into four groups: In the event of such disturbance, most of companies tend to forget their tactics and strategies regarding CSR/ long-term or sustainability goals and use to short-term solutions, no matter what the price to the environment, society, employees, consumers or stakeholders. We have concluded that most important vulnerabilities within the Organization are: * New concepts and re-design (products and services) It is quite clear that creation of new concepts and re-design of products/services is crucial for every company. The first step or designing, creating new or modifying product is generating ideas which furthermore need to be properly tested, feasibility study conducted, no matter how great the ideas seems to be. The process is lengthy and complicated: Therefore, the re-design itself can become CSR problem due to: * Waste Management, additional energy consumption, recyclability * Social impact of the product and Customer Safety * Layoffs (employees and suppliers) in case of restructuring or failure. For example, Michelin has failed to launch its run-flat PAX tire, which could be driven while being damaged, at highway speeds, for a hundred miles or more. Unfortunately, in order to use these tires, the under-body of the cars would need to be redesigned, new equipment and new skills would need to be acquired by the mechanics. As Michelin failed to analyze complete consumption chain of this new concept, the production line had to be discontinued. This was not only a commercial fail, but looking from the CSR point of view, it also had negative social impact such as layoffs, the time and resources used up for R&D, Marketing and other operations which could have been used for more efficient and value-added products. (Harvard Business Review 2007) * Transportation/ Logistics The location of the headquarters/warehouse and any other business unit has an important impact on Operations management and is one of the most vulnerable points when considering CSR. Transportation can have significant environmental impact: business flights, employee commuting and the movement of goods may cause emissions and leaks, including air pollutants, greenhouse gases and water pollution. As transportation is unavoidable for a manufacturing firm, operations management helps to reduce the impact, however due to complexity of the interrelated operations it can become vulnerable. For example, Company A is a supplier of Raw Materials; Company B is a customer, which needs Raw Materials to manufacture goods. In the event of a raw material production delay in Company A, scheduled standard delivery might need to be re-scheduled to a special express dedicated delivery to the Company B because, let’s say, due to this delay and bad planning Company B will have a production stop. Such delivery would be considered inefficient, as it is costly, fuel inefficient, increases pollution, pressurizes truck driver, moving from standard procedures to special procedures, additional pressure and stress for employees from both companies etc. One may argue, that the production stop would cause more negative impact than the rushed delivery, however it is difficult to weight the impact, there is the need to address root causes. If the planning and security stock from both sides was well managed, the express delivery would not have been necessary. To conclude, no matter how efficient Logistics processes are created within the company, human error is unavoidable; therefore Operations Management becomes vulnerable when considering CSR. * Waste and Recycle One of the most tragic examples of an operational failure is Chernobyl disaster in 1986, polluting and creating toxicity and waste problems. Not only companies need to manage the basic production safety and reduce accident rate, but they also need to recycle as much possible, manage day-to-day waste safely and create lean product life cycle. However, these processes are subject to vulnerability when considering SCR as there could be a graver damage made by conducting these operations. Recycling Companies such as HP who organize the recycling of the old cartridges or companies such as Nespresso who collect used coffee capsules, shows a great example of how to reduce the environmental impact of its products. However as great as it might appear, many other aspects need to be taken into consideration, for example supply chain system needs to be created to collect and transport these used items, special environmentally friendly bags or boxes for the pick-up point’s needs to be produced. Remembering Michelin case, where it failed to analyses it’s complete consumption chain, HP and Nespresso had to find a way to encourage consumer to bring back their empty cartridges and capsules. In their cases, it is successful, however it is vulnerable and could become a failure if the participation level of consumer is low. Waste Most significant waste issue is well noticeable in chemical industry or any other industry where waste is hazardous or is non-recyclable or non-reusable. The solution would be to improve the operation processes and to avoid unnecessary waste, however this is proven to be impossible due to human error and especially in chemical industry where chemical reactions can create unusable waste. The hazardous waste management is controlled by the legislation and will be discussed later on in the essay. Not only materials are considered to be waste, but also energy and labor waste – companies try to be more efficient by implementing just-in-time and lean process, however there is a clear vulnerability when considering CSR: at what price do company’s adopt their just in time principles? Overcrowded and polluted roads would be most direct negative impacts, but there are also other social impacts, which will be discussed in more detail in â€Å"organization evolution† section. * Organizational evolution Performance Measure There is no doubt that Performance Measure is highly important in Operational Management as well as for any other part of the business, however measuring and setting standards have negative social consequences, especially for the employees. Reduction of costs and prices, increasing customer experience, quality conformance, the speed of delivery, reliability of delivery could cause serious stress and working hour’s fluctuations for the employees. An example of the employee struggle to meet the set performance level is making data look better than it is by leaving out certain information, some company’s set high un-reasonable standards or in some quarters the performance cannot be met due to external factors causing stress. Continuous Improvement Kaizen is a Japanese system promoting Continuous Improvement or in other worlds never ending journey of improvements. There are many approaches such as the Deming Cycle (Plan, Do, Act, Check), tools and techniques to conduct the Continuous Improvement process. The benefits for efficiency and profit are unquestionable, however when considering CSR we can find many vulnerabilities. A good example of Continuous Improvement is Business Process re-engineering (BPR) which is a way of reconfiguration of processes in an appropriate level to provide highest value to the customers and improving critical areas. However again, at what cost when considering CSR? As BPR requires organizational change which requires changes in staff attitudes and could possibly result in loss of positions for many, reduction of responsibilities for others, the fear for Hire and Fire. Also, as tasks become more efficient, they also become more repetitive and less challenging. (T.Hill 2005) To summarize: Main social considerations of operations management decisions 2. Outside Partners As the world continues to expand we are starting to understand the consequences that our development has not only on the environment but also on society. Due to this new consciousness we have seen the emergence of different attempts to confront these environmental and social issues. Corporate Social Responsibility or CSR is one of the most commonly used concepts within the business world. Historically CSR has been only partially integrated as a philanthropic effort. Little by little the environmental issues caused by everyday operations of a company have also integrated the concept of CSR. With this change in definition, companies have actively trying to reduce their impact on the environment and society. As an essential function of a company, Operations Managements is constantly affected by these decisions. If, for example, a company decides to reduce their packaging it will be the operations department that will have to manage this change. Suppliers When we consider the impacts on Operations Management when integrating CSR to a company, we must go farther and analyze the impact on all outside partners such as suppliers. When we decide to integrate a CSR action, especially within the manufacturing process we need our suppliers to integrate the same change on their process. As customers begin to become more conscientious about environmental and societal issues they are demanding companies to make many changes. Within the clothing industry this green movement was reflected by customers asking for organically grown cotton to be used in the manufacturing of products such as Nike. In this kind of situation we see how the responsibility immediately falls on the supplier to change their process. This sort of sudden changes leaves the operations function of a company quite vulnerable, as they have to trust that their suppliers will be able to change their process without increasing costs. When there is a synergy between a manufacture and its suppliers such changes can be made with collaborations. A great example of this is how the company Esquel managed to give their customer the organic cotton they needed by managing their whole supplier chain. Instead of just demanding their own suppliers to supply the needed product they worked with 1st and 2nd tier suppliers and built a sustainable procurement chain (H. Lee 2010). In the last few years we have seen how many manufacturing companies who have simply demanded certain changes to their suppliers, but do not think about make an effort to assist in this change, and most importantly they do not control the whole procurement chain. This was the case of Mattel who made it clear to its 1st tier suppliers that no lead paint could be used when manufacturing its products, yet it never thought of auditing its 2nd tier suppliers or furthermore the outsourced production its main supplier had. This type of opaque supply chain makes operations very vulnerable and can cause, like in Mattel’s case severe financial repercussions (N. Sun 2007). The new shared-value concept developed by Porter and Kramer has introduced the idea that by collaborating with all the actors in a value chain we can create value while still respecting CSR. A company that has been able to smoothly transition into this new shared-value concept is Toyota. The deep relation that exists between Toyota and its manufacturers has allowed them to naturally apply changes that create a win-win situation for them and its suppliers. The Toyota company culture naturally includes the idea of shared-value and has a long-term mentality (Spear Bowen 1999).

What is Sociology?

We as human beings have always been curious about the sources of our own behaviour. Attempts to understand this relied on ways of thinking that were passed down from generation to generation. These ideas were often expressed in religious terms or drew from well-known myths, superstition and traditional beliefs. The objective and systematic study of human behaviour and society is a recent development dating from the 1700’s. A key development was the use of science to understand the world and this approach brought about a radical change in outlook and understanding.Just like physics, biology, chemistry and other disciplines, sociology emerged as part of this important intellectual process. The origins of sociology were the series of sweeping changes ushered in by the ‘two great revolutions’ of the 18th and 19th century Europe. These events transformed the way of life humans had maintained for thousands of years. The French Revolution, 1789 marked the ideas and value s, such as liberty and equality, over traditional social order.This was the Industrial Revolution, the broad spectrum of social and economic transformation that surrounded the development of new technical innovation. This caused an influx of migrants causing a rapid expansion of urban areas, forming new social relationships dramatically changing the face of the social world. There were a few individuals who contributed to early sociological thinking; one in particular was a French author, Auguste Comte (1798-1857) who actually coined the word ‘sociology’.He argued that sociology can and should study society and social phenomena following the patterns and procedures of natural sciences. Another contributor was Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and he had a more lasting impact on modern sociology than that of Comte. Some regard Durkheim as the first sociologist to apply statistical methods to the study of social phenomena. Throughout his career, Durkheim was primarily concerned with how society would maintain integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things like religion could no longer be assumed.His book Suicide (1897) is a very well-known piece of literature. These sociologist developed ideas into how we could study humans and the world in which we live. Sociology is seen as being the study of human social behaviour and its origins, development, organizations and institutions. It is a social science which uses various methods of investigation and is to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions, social structures and functions. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, law and deviance.With all aspects of human activity it is affected by interplay between social structure and individual agency, which means sociology, has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects such as health, internet and political economy. There are two non-sociological explanations of human b ehaviour, naturalistic and individual explanations. The naturalistic approach suggest that humans behave as a product of inherited disposition; programmed by nature, e. g. / race, motherhood, gender (etc.)We take for granted that all women are maternal and want to become mothers and be just like their own mothers but this is not always the case. The individual approach is on that sees human behaviour as a result of psychological make-up of the individual person, eg/ people who commit suicide have their own personal reason for doing so. This persons suicide may not solely be a personal choice but may have other social factors associated like religion. This is what sociology is all about, challenging the unknown and looking at things from a different perspective, â€Å"Sociology defamiliarises the familiar† (Z.Baumen 1990 Thinking Sociologically p15)Sociologist look at these behaviours from all different perspectives and challenges what we believe to common sense theories. To m ake sense of human reality sociology attempts to make sense of the human condition through analysing the manifold webs of human interdependency as opposed to the naturalistic or individualistic approach. It disturbs the comforting quiet way of life by questioning what we usually take for granted. â€Å"It can be said that the first wisdom of sociology is this: things are not what they seem† (P Berger 1963 Invitation to Sociology p34)To gather information we use sociological methods called quantative and qualitative data. Quantative data is presented in the form of numbers and statistics; macro-sociological perspective. This helps to go beyond personal impressions and opinions and is done in the form of social surveys, questionnaires and structured interviews, e. g. / The Kinsey report on the sexuality of Americans (1948-1953) Qualitative data however is to tell us why and methods used are usually interviewing people to build up an understanding of a respondents point of view rather than a generalized opinion on their behaviour.There is also participant observation and this is observing someone in their own environment and learning what life is like for them, e. g. / The Paulo Case. â€Å"Sociology deals with a factually observable subject matter, depends upon empirical research, and involves attempts to formulate theories and generalizations that will make sense of facts† (Giddens Scope of Sociology p6) The use of concepts are needed to describe things accurately and precisely and to describe and address abstract and immaterial social phenomena such as individualism, social class and globalization, etc.As you can see from this essay sociology is a very important study and without it we wouldn’t question human behaviours or the society surrounding us. It helps us to gain a better insight into who we are and why we are the way we are and how others can have an effect on each and every one of us.

Death Penalty in the USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Death Penalty in the USA - Essay Example   The courts have instead been granted discretion to decide the method to be used, leaving this form of punishment susceptible to abuse. Solution: Uniformity and Specificity of Laws It is important for states to have laws that more or less contain similar provisions especially with regards to topics of a controversial nature (Sutton, 2010). For instance, almost all countries in Europe have abolished these laws, based on Article 2 of the  Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union  which expressly prohibits capital punishment. This goes to show that countries in this region are reading from the same script – something that other countries should strive to achieve. The laws also need to be more specific especially on the methods to be used – some countries use hanging, lethal injection, electrocution, gas chamber, and firing squads. Problem: Fitting the Crime There has been a huge debate as to whether the death penalty is the proper punishment for certain c rimes (Feser, 2011). The question is whether this punishment fits the crime. In most cases, a convicted murderer is sentenced to death, but many critics have asked why the same punishment is not meted out against drug dealers whose crimes may have led to the death of many. Serial rapists and pedophiles are often not sentenced to death despite the unspeakable damage to women and children. Solution: Just Deserts It would be advisable for countries to determine whether the punishments meted outfit the crimes. The principle of proportionality states that the penalties should be proportionate in their severity to the gravity of the crime committed (Belrad, 2008). Problem: Failure to Exercise As previously stated, most countries contain provisions for the death penalty, however, most do not exercise them, thus making these provisions redundant. In most cases, these sentences are translated into life-long ones. It should be noted that there are crimes which are punished by life-long senten ces. Does this mean that capital offenses are reduced to the level of these offenses? Solution: Exercise the Law to the Letter This problem can be solved by exercising the law to the letter because failure to do this beats the whole purpose of having laws in the first place. If it is not compulsory for the courts while meting out punishments to adhere to the laws, then why should the civilians care? The law should be enforced to its full letter while also taking into consideration its spirit. Problem: Controversy There has been a lot of debate on this form of punishment.  

Post-war Manga and Animes comments on Japanese Society Essay

Post-war Manga and Animes comments on Japanese Society - Essay Example ever, through the aforementioned description it is abundantly clear that an Anime is equivalent to a regular cartoon but there are significant variations in how it is produced and the plot of the cartoon is designed, which is much more mature compared to the plot involved in American animations. Manga, which simply a name for Japanese comic book has inspired several Animes. These Animes does not only revolve around a much more mature protagonists and antagonists but their plots and sub-plots discuss more weighty issues faced by the society. The substance of this prose will examine the plots of Animes and mangas that were developed by creators during the post-war era in Japan. (Brenner, 2007) As we all know that the World War II was an epochal period in the history of Japan that redefined Japanese culture. As mentioned earlier, Animes were not just mere form of entertainment for the young population, but were meant to signify the changes and revolution that took place and are rapidly taking place in the Japanese community. As the war had a significant amount of impact on the dynamics of the Japanese society, the aftermath of the nuclear disaster seemed more pronounced on the thematic pattern followed by the Animes and mangas and they artists incorporated a strong element pertaining to nuclear apocalypses and the plot largely focuses on how the disaster affected adolescents and youngster as a result of the attack. (Napier, 2005) Despite the solemnity the subject of war usually radiates, according to film scholar Jerome Shapiro the playfulness in the Animes is an essential feature of their aesthetic sense and storytelling sense, he states: â€Å"Richie’s description of aware is substantially incomplete and misleading†¦ Mono no Aware†¦ is only half of a very complex... Japanese Manga and Animes have a huge fan following in Japan and it has a sizeable amount of followers on a global front as well. Even though, Japanese Animes and mangas are more like art form involving a stylized exaggeration in the representation and formation of character. Unlike normal cartoons, Japanese Animes have strong plot and does not have the same element of slapstick comedy involved also their visual characteristics may involve a strong influence of Japanese Calligraphy as the brush strokes used to draw various characters. As it is described by Richie, the Second World War was not only a spur to the creativity of Japanese people but also resulted in a spiritual revolution amongst the people and there came an uncanny resemblance to Buddhist ideology and doctrines and even resulted in the contemporary society of members of Japan adopting them. Hence, these post-war mangas and Anime does not only describe the ordeal of the people but also discuss the spiritual revolution that was brought about by it. The classic good vs. evil fight that is the main plot of Japanese animated and non-animated usually stems from Buddhistic beliefs in â€Å"Mappo† or the ends days of the world when the world would fall into complete chaos as people go further and further away from the teachings of Buddha and at that last possible moment the advent of the Maitreya Buddha; a saviour would navigate the world out of chaos and start a new world order. This is the typical scenario that is sketched by all the Animes and manga s and these are not only meant to be cautionary or foretell the advent of the saviour but are meant to reinforce the belief in the above mentioned spiritual teachings.

Effects of Globalization on Loogistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Effects of Globalization on Loogistics - Essay Example The main setting of this paper is to highlight the impact of globalization on the current economic environment, with specific focus on the logistics and transport sectors. Nonetheless, the paper bases its argument on the fact that the process of globalization is undoubtedly transforming the logistical strategies employed by service and products providers. Globalization combines various actions and trends, which makes the impact of this process not only complex but also revolutionary. According to the discussion findings the subsequent shift to the global business is driven by the desire to access lower labour costs, despite the exposures such as regulatory shifts and high transportation costs subjected to the organizations. With the onset of global business, revolution, many organizations sell to more consumers in wider geographic locations, hence raising the complexity of the processes required to satisfy each market segment. The wider global customer base presents a myriad of challenges for companies that are accustomed to the provision of standard logistic solutions to a smaller regional-based market. In the global field, nonetheless, customers demand not only for the high and perfect reliability of the delivery but also the customization and subsequent solutions to their problems. The above demands explain the complexities that obligate the organizations to adopt diverse and modern logistical solutions that would enable them to retain the customer base.

Management case study applying 10 management theories

Management applying 10 management theories - Case Study Example Bearing in mind that the traditional methods of competitive advantage may not apply to the modern business sector, market segmentation and appropriate targeting can also act as a competitive advantage. However, to take advantage of this, the organization ought to devise reliable ways of undertaking market research, which requires the right employees who can only be acquired through recruitment and selection. Although the organization may decide to undertake internal recruitment, it is usually recommended to undertake external recruitment through advertisements, referrals, and the Internet. This provides a new set of skills for the organization that can be used to capitalize on market segmentation and targeting. In spite of this advantage, this also requires additional resources that mean additional expenses that organizations take lengthy discussions to deal with. To accomplish the required outcomes, the organization ought to understand the impact that rational decision making can have towards the realization of this quest. Rational decision making incorporates several steps that begin with the identification of a problem, formulation of alternatives, implementation of the most appropriate solution, and evaluation of the impact that the implemented solution has. In most cases, this process favors logic, analysis as well as objectivity. Since marketing is an issue in the organization, as indicated in the case study, this provides information on the problem to be resolved while the next step would involve several alternatives that may include increasing supply or even identifying areas to supply specific products. This is because the research would provide information concerning customer preferences, which is very important to organizations. Once the most appropriate step has been agreed upon and implemented, the final step is very important

Evaluating, Narrating, and Describing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evaluating, Narrating, and Describing - Essay Example This story has been written in such a way that it is likely to cause mixed feelings among the targeted readers. The story vividly describes the perceptions held by different people about the role of the wife in their lives. Feminists are likely to view this story from a negative perspective since it stereotypes the role of wives as child minders as well as responsible for taking care of the family. the author states that she wants a so that she can go back to school to acquire knowledge which in turn can empower her economically when she gets a well paying job. In different patriarchal societies, men believe that only men should be gainfully employed and the wives should concentrate on performing different household chores. Wives should be dependent on their husbands for any financial needs and they should stay at home in order to take care for the kids. The author states that: â€Å"I want a wife to take care of my children. I want a wife to keep track of the children’s doct or and dentist appointments. And to keep track of mine, too. I want a wife to make sure my children eat properly and are kept clean,† (1). This shows that wives are often viewed as solely responsible for performing household tasks as mentioned above. The author also suggests that a wife should submit herself under her husband and she should do anything desired by him. This is reflected in the following statement: â€Å"I want a wife who will not bother me with rambling complaints about a wife’s duties,† (2). From this statement, it can be seen that a wife is supposed to obey the commands of the husband and she should not complain about her duties. In other words, the author is trying to portray wives as objects of their male counterparts. The author also states that a wife has a duty to satisfy the sexual desires of her husband whenever he feels like having sexual intercourse with her. This is shown in the following statement: â€Å"I want a wife who is sensitiv e to my sexual needs, a wife who makes love passionately and eagerly when I feel like it, a wife who makes sure that I am satisfied,† (2). A close analysis of this statement shows that wives are often treated as sexual objects and they should abide by the sexual demands of their husbands under whatever condition. The author further states that she wants a wife who will not demand sex from the husband even if she feels like doing it. In other words, the wife is portrayed as a person who does not have feelings but just a sexual object. The author also portrays the husband as someone who has the right to engage in extra marital affairs whenever he finds someone appealing than his wife. This shows the extent to which wives are treated in some sections of the society across the globe. This story is likely to strongly appeal to the emotions of women who are forced to view themselves as being relegated to lower levels in the society in a negative way. Feminists and rights activists a re likely to criticise this story in strong and harsh terms since they advocate for equality between men and women. Feminists in different parts of the world argue that there should be equality between men and women and they should also be given equal employment opportunities just like their male counterparts. This would emancipate them so that they would not solely depend on their husbands for survival. Rights activists argue that women should also be economically empowered so that they can also independently make their own

Innovation, Creativity and Enterprise in Markets Essay

Innovation, Creativity and Enterprise in Markets - Essay Example The industry that has been selected for fulfilling the objective of this study report is that of the universities in the UK. The report will be composite of the selected university analysis so that the relevance of the selected study can be established. The most essential sector of the report will be composite of evaluating the various approaches being followed in the UK universities for the effective utilisation of the concept of innovation, creativity and enterprise. The report, at the end, will draw up essential conclusion regarding the key issues being identified from the entire survey with respect to the concepts. 2. Industry Analysis The industry consisting of the various universities in the UK offers the most valuable services to the people not only within the local region but also to the people all around the world. The UK universities are open to students coming from all around the world with the required skills and potentials demanded by the universities. The industry playe rs or the number of universities in the UK are all concentrated on providing quality education to the students with proper assurance and dignity. The universities conduct routine analysis of the various courses that they offer so as to making sure that the form of education that they offer are up-to-date and essential for the betterment of the students. The UK is considered to be holding the most capacity to attract international students among the western countries of the world. Although seven European countries have been identified to be placing stiff competition to the UK’s position, the extremely competitive advantageous position of the UK with respect to providing education to the international students have assisted this country to remain at the topmost position. Autonomy, funding, staffing of international students and assistance of the funding council are the four most advantages of the universities in the UK (Becker & Et. Al., 2009). However, in the future, the compe tition within the UK universities will increase since the recession has put a triggering blow upon the people striving for application for achieving degree from the UK universities. During September 2009, 465,000 people had applied for the acquisition of degree (Curtis, 2009). 3. UK Universities- Innovation, Creativity and Enterprise Innovation, creativity and enterprise are the traits that the European countries like that of the UK aim to foster among the people. The universities have been evaluated to be the best source through which these traits can be injected into the students or the prospective future entrepreneurs. The UK universities follow a number of principles, practices and processes for creating the entrepreneurial mindsets among the students. In this section of the report, the analysis of those principles, processes and practices will be undertaken so as to evaluate their effectiveness. The various noteworthy universities in the UK have adopted the process of innovativ e learning through creative thinking in order to develop upon the characteristics of an entrepreneur among their students. The practices undertaken within the universities are composed of various policies and guidelines for carrying out innovation management and enterprise skill development among others. The practices handle the several societal, economical, entrepreneurial and managerial

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 25

Case study - Essay Example Based on sales, each identified product or service is defined by its purchasers. Since there diverse and ever changing nature of products available in the market, the corporation makes supplies to different consumers specifically identified by the purchases made. Across demarcated market regions, some products will sell more than others, although the entire customer base is constituted by all market segments. The second variable is that of broadcasting. The corporation understands that not every market segment requires broadcasting products or services, and as such different customers view broadcasting from various perspectives, thereby constituting variant tastes and preferences. In this regard, Meredith evaluates its broadcasting options prior to the needs of different customers. The third variable relates to regional and social diversity. Different physical regions and social differences create the need for identifiable markets to these factors. In all the three variables, data mining techniques are highly employed to aid the segmentation process (Havaldar, 2010). The target marketing strategy employed by the Meredith Corporation is direct marketing. This involves addressing specific customer needs as they arise. The corporation embraced customer diversity and dynamism in its business. This makes it prioritize its customers’ needs, tastes and preferences. Customers interact directly with the corporation through the corporation’s websites. Through the same websites, their expectations on product development and improvement are collected and used for customer satisfaction purposes. Meredith has developed variety of products for the diverse customer base and market share that it enjoys. Building strong relationships with the right customer guarantees any business enterprise that its operations and performance over rivals are competent enough (Havaldar, 2010). For Meredith

Business Forecasting Using eViews Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Forecasting Using eViews - Essay Example Some of their equipment failed in the market and they faced a multi-million-pound lawsuit. This led to a huge deficit in their pension fund. This was the cause of the major fall in their share prices in that period. From the analysis, the prices were performing better from that point onward and rose in an almost steady gradient. This was until the first quarter of 2005 when the share price fell slightly, then another steady rise to mid-2006. Subsequently, there was a drop of the index by about 50. The graph then rises and a number of more falls follow before the end of the sample period. Due to the noise of the graph, trend identification is difficult. A histogram illustrates a slightly clearer representation of the data, this helps with the noise problem. Due to the non-linearity and volatility of financial data, it is difficult to predict the level of the series at each period. The figure below is stationary, which makes it more predictable. It also depicts the first differences in the series. It shows the first differences of the Rolls Royce shares during the period 01/01/2000 and ending 31/12/2007. The differences in this period are stationary relative to their mean; their variance is relatively stable as well. There is a slight increase in the middle of the graph between mid-2002 and mid-2003. The first difference of the logarithms is the returns to share in the financial market. This is the representation of the value. The change or the first difference of Y is c. If the accurate prediction of the consequent references were possible from the series, then the next period would be an increment to the current level to achieve the next level. Reiterations for all higher levels takes place. The constant model expansion yields Financial data are very volatile due to the many factors that affect its behavior. This makes it very unpredictable.  

What is meant by the term gothic Essay Example for Free

What is meant by the term gothic Essay Gothic literature, which is sometimes referred to as Gothic horror, is a genre that links horror and romance into one tale of ‘transgressing the boundaries’. Gothicism was unheard of until the late 1700’s, this movement into a new genre of literature. This was pioneered by the English author Horace Walpole, in his famous fictional book ‘The Castle of Otranto’, or as Walpole alternatively titled it ‘a Gothic story’. Horace Walpole himself had transgressed the boundaries slightly; by introducing this new style of writing he had added a whole new genre into literature. Walpole’s style of writing was unique and captivated the readers mind and imagination to let he or she share the act of transgression, or as Robert Kidd, a renowned critic put it, â€Å"The Gothic has somehow seduced the reader so that he or she is complicit in engaging in whatever he or she might encounter†. This is what kept Gothicism alive, the author’s ability to intrigue the reader and give them a thirst to read more gothic literature. The term Gothic has been viewed as very different things over time. Gothicism came about at a very tumultuous time, after the fall of the Roman Empire, a time of raw and uncontrolled exercise of physical power. The Goths were a barbaric tribe of murderers, rapists and thieves, later the term was known as ‘Medieval’. Nowadays the term Gothic is viewed very differently by modern society, when thought about now, one thinks of it as horror. It is in rock bands, the theatre, but mainly in the modern film industry. Gothicism has become somewhat of an obsession to modern film producers and leading film companies in recent years. This acceleration of Gothic themed films started in 1922 with the film ‘Nosferatu’; this was then followed by ‘Rebecca’ in 1940. And the list continues, Sleepy Hollow (1999), Corpse Bride (2005), Sweeney Todd (2007), and one of the more modern examples, the newer version of The Woman in Black (2012). This just highlights the extent of interest in modern society about modern Gothicism. The standard thought of somebody, when they are posed with the question ‘What do you understand about the term Gothic?’ would most likely be fairly predictable. The scene would be set in the heart of a dark, wet forest away from any normal civilisation. The building would be a dark and rundown old mansion in a large empty clearing with large empty  rooms and halls. Gargoyles would be clinging to the exterior of the building, and a decrepit, collapsed roof leaking and dripping in the driving rain. When the innocent traveller knocks on the door hoping to gain refuge and shelter from the storm, he is greeted by an emaciated, gangly butler who invites them in, as they fail to notice the menacing grin as they enter the dark, badly lit and claustrophobic corridor. The scene created is one of fear and horror which is typical of Gothicism. All these features are motifs in Gothic literature. These tools are what all authors of Gothic literature use without exception. This is for the simple reason that these tools are what keep the genre of Gothic literature alive. The author uses the reader’s natural, urge for adrenalin boost and thrill, through suspense and mystery to make the book successful. In almost every Gothic text, the reader is in a position of dramatic irony where he or she can see everything happening and unfolding, without the ability to stop it. Another one of the main reasons, as to why Gothic Literature is such a success is because; Gothic texts allow the reader to think the unthinkable, and to sublimate their innermost desires, psyche and their wildest imaginations. The reader is able to satisfy his or hers innermost desires through the pages of the book. The reader finds refuge through Gothic text. This is no exception with the authors. The author also wants to satisfy their imagination by creatively and articulately channelling their thoughts into a work of art. Robert Kidd writes in his ‘Transgressing the Boundaries’ article, â€Å"The power and passion of Gothic Literature seemed eminently suited to the iconoclasts who wished to challenge the status quo†. There were many famous writers like this, for example, Horace Walpole, Lewis, Godwin and of course Mary Shelley. The authors and readers of Gothic Literature share a very special connection. Both sides gain from books and share the same feelings as one writes and one reads the book, with both satisfying their imaginations. Mary Shelley’s ‘Frankenstein’ or ‘The Modern Prometheus’ is a known as a Gothic text. Although Frankenstein is indeed a gothic text, it does not include every element of Gothic text. However it is impossible to read the book without realising that there are a lot of Gothic techniques within. A major part of Gothic literature is mystery, and this is present from the very beginning of the book. We experience mystery firstly in the letters on  pp. 15-31. The reader at this stage does not know who is writing the letters (He is soon revealed as Robert Walton) and who the Mrs Saville he is writing to is. This is the first mystery; the next is why Robert Walton is writing in such a serious tone, â€Å"Rejoice to hear that no disaster has accompanied†. Already the reader is feeling a sense of danger and mysteriousness in the book. This is an exact example of the reader being driven to read further to satisfy their curiosity. Gothic Literature is not only about horror; romance also plays a very large part in it. And this is also present from the very beginning of the book. In the letters mentioned in the previous paragraph, as well as the mystery and danger sensed by the reader (â€Å"Rejoice to hear that no disaster has accompanied†.), the reader also senses the love between Robert Walton and his sister, Mrs Saville. There are of love and affection in every single letter without exception, for instance â€Å"Farewell, my dear, excellent Margaret.† And the list can continue with numerous examples. The various examples above that contribute to a Gothic text are not lone samples. These various themes and motifs continue throughout the text. Gothic text also has a reputation for not immediately beginning with horror and dark mystery; rather it begins with peace and harmony that gradually changes throughout the text, and again ‘Frankenstein’ is a testimony to this. When Victor completes his pride, his experiment, his son, his reaction is one of ecstasy, â€Å"Beautiful. Beautiful!† which quickly changes to one of disgust and abhorrence, with his words â€Å"the beauty of the dream vanished, and a breathless horror and disgust filled my heart.† This emotion of love changing to disgust is verification of Shelley’s efforts make ‘Frankenstein’ a Gothic text, as many texts do. Mary Shelley, in the book ‘Frankenstein’ or ‘The Modern Prometheus’, went to great lengths to make the book a Gothic text, and indeed it went on to become one of the most famous Gothic texts in history.

Two Object Oriented Methodologies Booch And Rambaugh Information Technology Essay

Two Object Oriented Methodologies Booch And Rambaugh Information Technology Essay In this paper Object-oriented System development methodologies i-e Booch, Rambaugh, are reviewed and compared with each other with a focus on their development processes. We have developed a framework based on a set of criteria to compare the two methods. The aim of this comparison is to better understand the core philosophies and processes of each method, and internal activities that each method provides. The aim of this descriptions and comparisons are not to criticize the philosophies of theses methodologies, but to give a description of the two methodologies that will facilitate the readers to better understand each methodology, and to what extent the two methodologies are object oriented. And also this comparison provides an ease in selecting and evaluating each methodologys process. (doc1)The software engineering field has been evolving over the past thirty years, but it has never completely solved the software crisis. Software development methodologies, as an essential element of the discipline of software engineering, have also evolved from the shallow and informal methodologies of the late 1960s to the object-oriented methodologies of the 1990s and the new millennium (doc1). There is a rapid development in the object oriented paradigm during the past years and the important reasons for such rapidness are that the real world applications are modeled in a better way as well as the object oriented paradigm enables the reusability of different artifacts during the development of a software system. Object oriented system development approach facilitates the re-use of software components. A system developed with Object Oriented Methodology (OOM) on component basis can re-use the existing components effectively, and as well as its components can be shared by some other systems too. One can achieve higher productivity, better quality and low maintenance cost by adopting the OOM. Since, the object-oriented methodologies (OOM) are still growing and continue to evolve, and there are a number of popular OOMs circulating around, but none of them is widely accepted. The software community is yet not agreed upon several fundamental issues. (1) A methodology is a systematic collection of techniques guidelines for how to build, buy, maintain and/or enhance software products. A methodology provides a basis for communication, a toolkit of techniques and a basis for repeatable, reliable software engineering. The term, method, refers to an approach to activities generally adhering to common principles [14]. Object-oriented software development methodologies, starts from the appearance of hybrid methodologies, then move to seminal methodologies, and the development of integrated (third-generation/heavyweight) methodologies and their agile (lightweight) counterparts. The following are the categories of Object oriented methodologies [15]: Seminal: Shlaer-Mellor, Coad-Yourdon, RDD, Booch, OMT, OSA, OOSE, BON,Hodge-Mock, Syntropy, Fusion; Integrated: OPM, Catalysis, OPEN, RUP/USDP, EUP, FOOM; Agile: DSDM, Scrum, XP, ASD, dX, Crystal, FDD; Although the promises, that the object-oriented software development provides, are based on solid grounds but still there is a confusion among the organization on when and how to invest in this new technology and also whether to invest or not. One of the reason for such confusion is that a great number of methodologies have been evolved during the last years. The other reason for confusion is closely related to the attractiveness of object-oriented software: Many vendors sticks the label object-oriented to their products without delivering important features as King (1989, p. 24) states: If I were trying to sell (my cat) I would argue that he is object-oriented. Research Problem The research question we are going to answer is: To what extent the two Object Oriented Methodologies: Booch and Rambaugh methodologies are Object Oriented and to what extent the methodologies help the software development organizations?. The selection cretaria for the the above two OOM is mentioned in the section 1.4.2. Since the object oriented paradigm evolved in different areas of the software development simultaneously, therefore fundamental concepts were different in different methodologies and were not completely standardized. Each OOM developed in a particular software domain such as real time systems and Information systems, although some cross-over exists in some concepts among the methodologies. Therefore, some methodologies are best in the development of applications that belong to the domain for which the methodology is evolved, while other can be used more generally. Even though OOM that evolved in the same domain may differ enough in different concepts such as process and notation and as a result can effect the software engineering goals. Motivation In the recent years, an overwhelming popularity of object oriented analysis and design has been witnessed. This phenomenon is evidenced by the number of papers and articles that are published in various conference proceedings, journals, books, and other forms. But There are still a large part of the business world that uses traditional software development approach for applications development. And on the technology side, there is an extensive development in the area of Object-Oriented technologies that promises better quality and productivity through reusability, and also encourages team work. The following observation is made in a survey [] about the organizations that uses OOM, performed by Sumit: A recent survey of IS managers revealed that 39% of organizations have adopted OO technology in some form. Nonetheless, OO development methodologies are used in only 5% of IS projects are developed in OO methodologies (Glass, 1999). For a specific application the first task is to decide which methodology is most appropriate for its development. Sometimes we may have to adapt different methodologies. Therefore an organization, that wants to switch to object oriented technology, faces one important question: which OOM is appropriate and should be chosen? A systematic comparison of available OOMs can answer such a question in a better way before selecting one of them. There are number of papers and articles that compare different aspects of the OOMs such as the reusability, documentation and others. So there is a need for the comparison which considers their system development core philosophy including all the concepts that methodologies provide in their development process. Unfortunately, the comparison of these methodologies is complicated because each OOM has its own set of definitions of the techniques, concepts, notations and are composed of informal descriptions, therefore the comparison of the methodologies depends largely on the interpretations and perceptions of the person who performs the comparison[10]. Such a comparison facilitate the organization that are developing software with traditional approach and now these organizations want to switch from the traditional software development approach to object oriented approach.. We also want to improve the understanding of these methodologies through this comparison, and to provide an ease in selecting, and evaluating the methodologies. The other purpose is to provide knowledge to the individuals that are interested to get the knowledge about object-oriented concepts, to what extent the two methods are object oriented, and how they relate to one another. Such interest in some cases is academic (e.g., students). Similarly individuals in companies or organizations want to evaluate and select a methodology to be used in software development process. We believe that sometime these groups are given short time and resources to make this decision, therefore comparisons like this will provide a shortcut means of selection. Research Methodology and comparison issues First we will review the existing software development methodologies (seminal methodology) that are object-oriented. We will study their system development processes to get a knowledge base about the object oriented technology. The purpose of this study is to understand their system development processes and internal activities involved in these development processes. Then we will review the two methods using a process-centered template, where we will summarize the two methodologies, and the activities and techniques discuss in the two methodologies will be highlighted. In the second step we will evaluate and compare Booch and Rumbaugh Object Oriented. We will use books, journals, proceedings, and internet sources as the data sources about the object oriented methodologies and ongoing research to gain the knowledge base. This report compares the two object oriented methodologies: Booch method and Rambaugh method, by considering their system development core philosophy. A research has been done in Hewlett Packard Laboratories by Arnold and his colleagues [1], in which several comparing criteria are defined in the form of questions for comparing Object oriented Methodologies. These comparing criteria are based on the concepts, notations, process, and pragmatics of the OOM methodology. Influenced by the above research, this report presents a framework to compare the two selected methodologies using the same set of criteria form the above research. The framework uses these set of comparing criteria for comparing the concepts, notations, process, and pragmatics of the two selected methodology which are defined in the section 1.5.1 under the heading of comparison variables. Using such framework helps us to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the two methods during the comparison process. Based on this framework, the two methods are extensively compared. The results are presented in a set of tables. Since the results are in tabular form so the similarities and differences as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the two methods can easily be seen. Comparison Variables As mentioned above, this report uses four main categories of the two methodologies in the comparison which are defined as follows: Concepts: Concepts are related to the conceptual underpinnings of the methodology that makes it object-oriented, and explians how the concepts such as object, class, state, inheritance, aggregation, and information hiding are defined and dealt by the methodology? Process: The methodology describes what steps to be taken and in what order to accomplish certain task in develoment process. How well the methodology specifies the process varies largly from methodology to methodology. Notation: The methodology describes tecniques (textual, and /or graphical) to capture and represent information within the development process. Some methodologies describe graphical techniques only, while others specify the form and content of whole documents. Pragmatics: The pragmatic criteria concentrate on nontechnical features. Pragmatics covers issues like needed resources, language suitability, learning of the CASE tools, required expertise, and domain applicability.(8) Comparison variables are listed in Table 1 under each category. The selection criterion for these variables is objectiveness. The aim of this report is to do the objective comparison of methodologies. That is, hard facts are produced by these variables about a methodology showing that a methodology either supports or does not support these variables. This selection criterion has one limitation. That is, no fine grained information regarding a variable is provided in this report for the comparison. Typically, the degree to which a methodology supports a variable is not answered in this comparison. In order to alleviate this shortfall for some variables, the report distinguishes explicit methodology support from implicit methodology support in the comparison and provide fine grained information if appropriate. The definitions of these variables in Table I are delayed until Section 3 when the selected OOADMs are compared. Table 1: Comparison variables Category Variables Concepts Class/Object, Abstract Classes, Meta-Classes, Encapsulation, Inheritance, Association, Aggregation, Methods/Messages, Type of Communications between objects and classes, Concurrency Process Development Process Deliverables, Development Context, Aspects of the Development Life-Cycle, Partitioning Mechanism, The Life-Cycle of the Methodologies Notations Static Concepts, Dynamic Concepts, Explicit Rules for Notations Symbols Pragmatics System Size, Programming Languages Support Selection of OOMs As mentioned above that this report compare the following two OOM for comparison. Object-Oriented Modeling and Techniques by J. Rumbaugh, et al. [Rumbaugh 91] Object-Oriented Analysis and Design by G. Booch [Booch 94] The selection of OOMs is based on three criteria. First the Object Oriented Methodologies (OOM) must be published in text book form so that adequate information is available for our comparison; which narrowed down our selection to those OOMs that are available in the text book form. Second the OOMs should be well-known and must be accepted by the software development community as real object-oriented methodologies. Third the methodologies must be supportred by CASE tools. The two OOM, selected in this report for camparison, fulfill and satisfy the three criteria [1, 10]. Both Booch, and Rumbaugh, which are the most widely used OOM, have evolved either from the real time domain or information processing domain and also are used in general. The two methodologies has gained significant attention so far in the software development community and are well documented at the same time. These criteria might exclude some well-known OOMs or recent developments in the OOM, but sufficiency, maturity and general acceptance of methodologies are the primary requirements for software development practice. Literature review Limitation This paper evaluates the aforementioned methods by scoring them against a set of criteria. It is not the goal of the paper to answer the question which one is the best? But rather to show the differences between methods and to allow conclusions be drawn as to their applicability. Remaining of report is divided into four sections. Section 2 provides a brief introduction of the two methodologies. Section 3 contains the comparison of the two methodologies. Section 4 presents the conclusion for the comparison of the two OOMs. Finally, section 5 contains the references to the literature used for this research. Brief introduction Of the Booch And Rambaugh (OMT) Methods Booch (1991, 1994) Booch introduced object oriented methodology in his book published in 1991. He was the first one to give the idea of the object-oriented approach in software development process, which he called system design [2][3]. He was popular at that for his landmark paper [Booch 1986] and for the work on Ada program design. He then introduced the analysis methodology to his design and extended his design model as a repeating process which he called The Micro Process) within a development process which is referred as The Macro Process. The macro process is shown in the figure 1 below as prescribed by Booch which is a self-iterative process Figure 1- The Macro Process -Booch [1994] These two processes are discussed in the next sections. The Macro Process The macro process consists of the following steps [2] [3] [4]. 1. Establish core requirements for software (conceptualization). 2. Develop a model of the systems desired behavior (analysis). 3. Create architecture for the implementation (design). 4. Evolve the implementation through successive refinements (evolution). 5. Post-delivery evolution management (maintenance). The Micro Process The micro process consists of the following activities as shown in figure 2 below [2] [3] [4]: The classes and objects are identified at a given abstraction level. Figure 2-The Micro Process Booch [1994] 2. Previously identified classes and objects meanings are established by defining the Semantics for every class and object, as well as the behavior of the system and its components are determined. 3. The interface of classes and objects as well as their implementation are specified. Decisions about the representation of the classes and objects are made in design model. Rambaugh OMT (1991) Rumbaugh introduced Object Modeling Technique (OMT) in 1991.OMT consists of following three major models and then it defines a method for integrating them [11] [12]. 1. The Object Model 2. The Dynamic Model 3. The Functional Model The object model In this model, Objects static structure and relationships among these objects are determined within a system. The following are the main concepts used in this model: object class operation attribute association aggregation Inheritance Dynamic model This model gives a description about the dynamics of the objects and their changes in states. This model shows the essential characteristics that change over time in a system by observing the objects behavior over time, and by exploring control and events flow among the objects. The control aspects of a system are specified and implemented in this model. The following are the main concepts in this model: state sub/super state event activity action Functional model This model shows information about the data flow within a system and the outside world. The following are then main concepts of this model: process data flow data store actor (source/sink) control flow OMT consists of five phases. 1. Analysis 2. System Design 3. Object Design 4. Implementation (coding) 5. Testing OMT processes considers the primary features in the first three phases of development (i-e Analysis, System Design and Object Design) and are explained in following sections. The following figure 3 shows these processes. Figure 3.-The OMT process- Derr [1995]. 1. Analysis this phase goal is to build a comprehensible and correct model according to the real world situation. The initial problem statement is developed from the requirements of the users and information that are provided by developers and managers. The analysis phase produces the following deliverables [11] [12]: Problem Statement Object Model, which consists of Object Model Diagram and data dictionary Dynamic Model, which consists of State Diagrams and Global Event Flow Diagram Functional Model, which consists of Data Flow Diagram and constraints 2. System design on the bases of architectural design of the system and problem domain, the system is partitioned into subsystems. The following are the system design phase deliverables: System Design Document: consists of architectural design of the system and high-level strategic decisions for implementing data stores in the form of data structures, files, and databases. 3. Object design based on the analysis model, the goal of this phase to provide Implementation details that include the domain infrastructure classes along with the internal objects needed for implementation. The following are the object design phase deliverables: Detailed Object Model Detailed Dynamic Model Detailed Functional Model 4. Implementation in this phase the system that is designed so far is translated into programming language code and hardware. 5. Test The entire System that is developed is verified in this phase. Testing includes system level and scenario based tests. Comparison Of Booch and Rambaugh methods The framework used in this paper is considering the following major areas of each methodology for comparison: Concepts Process Notations Pragmatics 3.1 Concepts A method to be consider as object oriented, it should support concepts that are related to the object oriented methologies. This comparison provides help in evaluating the method to the extent it is is object oriented. Therefore , in this paper we are comparing object oriented concepts of the two methodologies, Booch and Rambaugh, in the following categories. Concepts, such as Class, Object, etc. The relationships such as Inheritance and Aggregation Types of communications between objects and classes. Concurrency mechanisms Object is the fundamental concept of every object-oriented method, that must be supported by the method. An object encapsulates its internal state (or attributes) and provides a set of operations (methods/messeges) as an interface for manipulating the state. Whereas a class is a template which describes the attributes and interface of a set of objects. Object instances are produced by defining class variables.[5] Table 1 lists comparison of the object oreinted concepts that both methodology provides. A Y in the box for each concept represents that an artifact is provided by the coresponding methodology. Table 1. Object Oriented concepts Method Rumbaugh Booch classes/objects Y Y abstract classes Y Y meta-classes Y Y Encapsulation Y Y single inheritance Y Y multiple inheritance Y Y Aggregation Y Y Association Y Y methods/messages Y Y Total 9 9 Real world is concurrent, so object oriented methods often uses concurrent objects in the analysis phase to model it. Objects remain in passive mode, until an operation is invoked by another object to bring them in active mode. If there are more than one thread of control associated with active object, then it is called internally concurrent object. Therefore object oriented methods should support ways to access the shared data in concurrent systems.[5] Table 2. Concurrency Method Passive Active internally concurrent Rumbaugh Y Y Y Booch Y Y Communiication provides information flow and synchronization between objects that are involved in the communication. In Synchronous communication the sender object send a messege to the reciever object and suspend execution until it receives an aknowlegment message from the reciever, whereas in asynchronous communication the sender does not wait for the aknowlegment and continues its execution. Sequential systems uses procedural call whereas concurrent object systems uses remote procedure Call for communication. Table 3. Communication Method Synchronous Asynchronous Procedural Remote procedure Rumbaugh Y Y Y Booch Y Y Y Process 3.2.1. Deliverables that are produced during the Development Process: A number of different types of deliverables are generated during the development process of a system. These include a number of specifications likely requirements, analysis, design, subsystem, and test cases. Particularly, in object-oriented development process, object and classes specifications are very important. Following criteria is used to find out the deliverables that each methodology generates during the development process: 0 shows no deliverable is generated. 1 shows deliverable is generated, but details are not provided. 2 shows deliverable is generated and also well defined. 3 shows deliverable is generated, a definition is provided, and an example is given. 4 shows deliverable is generated, a definition is provided, and an example is given, and a definition for the process is provided. 5 shows deliverable is generated, a definition is supplied, an example is given, a definition for the process is provided, and heuristics are provided. The following table 4 represents the results of this evaluation: Table 4: Development process deliverables Method Rumbaugh Booch Requirement Specification 2 1 Design Specification 2 2 Test Cases 0 0 Object/Class Specification 5 1 Subsystem Specification 0 1 Totals 9 5 3.2.2. Development Contexts A set of constraints occur during the development process which are established by development context. The following criteria are used to evaluate that whether each methodology explicitly discusses the constraints that are established by the development context, or not within the method. A Y in the With Prototyping column shows that prototyping is discussed explicitly in the methodology. A Y in the As Prototyping indicates that prototypes iteratively deliver the system and methodology produces prototypes into production. A Y in the With Reuse shows that the methodology explicitly incorporate the reuse products into the method The For Reuse indicates whether the methodology delivers reusable products for other processes or not. Table 5: Development Context Method Rumbaugh Booch With Prototype Y As Prototype With Reuse Y Y For Reuse Partial Y Aspects of the Development Life-Cycle The whole development life cycle of a methodology gives us a suggestion about the completeness and consistency of the methodology. If a methodology covers all aspects of the development lifecycle during the development process then it ensures the completeness and the consistency of the methodology and it is useful to the organization as a complete and consistent methodology. Therefore, complete life cycle coverage is very important to a life cycle with a limited coverage. Following table 6 values shows these aspects: 0 shows this feature is not covered. 1 shows this feature is covered, but with no details. 2 show this feature is covered with definition. 3 shows this feature is covered, a definition is given with an example (at least one). 4 shows this feature is covered, a definition is given with an example (at least one) and with defined process. 5 shows this feature is covered, a definition is given with an example (at least one) and with defined process, and heuristics are provided. Table 6: Development process life cycle coverage Method Rumbaugh Booch Domain Analysis 0 4 Requirement Analysis 5 2 Enterprise Modeling 0 0 Design 5 5 Implement 3 4 Test 2 0 Total 15 15 In software engineering Extensibility of the system design is a systematic measure of the ability to last or continue. A level of efforts is required to extend a system in range or scope. Table 7: Extensibility Method Completeness Consistency Extensibility Rumbaugh Y Y Y Booch N N N Table 8: Process properties Method Well-defined steps(process) Pure or hybrid Traceable across lifecycle Rumbaugh Y H Y Booch Partial P Partitioning Mechanism When system size increases, then at a particular time, the visibility of certain information about the objects of interest is very crucial and to limit this visibility a partitioning mechanism is required. Each methodology was studied carefully to seek such mechanisms it provides. So the information in the table below was the outcome. Table 9: Partition mechanism Method Partitioning Mechanism Rumbaugh Subsystems Booch Subsystems The Life-Cycle of the Methodologies The development life-cycle of each methodology was carefully reviewed so as to determine that whether the methodology follows a sequential (i-e Waterfall), iterative or recursive strategy because it is the crucial requirement for project planning. Otherwise it will yield unexpected results with high risk and would lead to total failure. The following table 10 shows that which methodology follows what strategy. Table 10: life cycle property Method Recursive Iterative Sequential Rumbaugh Y Booch Y 3.3 Notations 3.3.1. Static Concepts Each methodology was reviewed to determine that how each methodology represents the following concepts: Aggregation: what are the components an object is a composed of. Communication: How the classes or objects communicate with each other(i-e by sending message to one another) Specialization: An object is represented as a generalization, or specialization, of another class or object? Module Interfaces: The physical implementations of objects Qualifications for Reuse: How much each methodology encourages the reuse of different components of development process. These concepts within each methodology indicates that how the models are used. The table 11 below shows the notations for these concepts. Table 11: Static Concepts Method Rumbaugh Booch Aggregation Object Model Class Diagram Specialization Object Model Class Diagram Communication Scenario Class Diagram Module Interfaces Module Qualifications f

Importance Of Profit And Loss Account Accounting Essay

Importance Of Profit And Loss Account Accounting Essay The Profit and Loss Account is a Financial Statement which summarizes a companys revenue and expenditure for a specific period of time, usually prepared annually or quarterly. These statements provide information that shows the ability of a company to generate profits by increasing its revenues and reducing costs. The Profit and Loss Account is also known as a Statement of Profit and Loss, an Income Statement or an Income and Expense Statement. IMPORTANCE OF PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT : Profit and Loss Account represents a companys ability to generate income through their business operations. Many times businesses will need financing to help create the facilities for their operations. Smaller companies usually obtain bank loans that are based on the amount of income a company has earned from past operations. Solid Profit and Loss history is essential for getting the best loan terms. Profit and loss statements are important also because many companies are required by law or association membership to complete them. Apart from this, a profit and loss statement will help the company to understand their net income, which may be helpful in decision-making processes. That is, it gives one the information needed to grow or expand his business. KEY ITEMS OF THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT : Income from Sales Cost Of Goods Sold Gross Profit Operating Expenses Net Profit from Operations Other Income Other Expenses Net Profit STANDARD STRUCTURE OF A CORPORATE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT: Profit and Loss Account for the year endedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs. To Gross Loss à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. By Gross Profit à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Salaries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. By Interest Received à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Rent à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. By Commission Received à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Rent and Rates à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. By Other Receipts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Discount Allowed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. By Etc., Etc. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Commission Allowed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. By Net Loss (Transferred to Capital Account of the Trader) xxxx To Insurance à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Bank Charges à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Legal Charges à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Repairs à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Advertising à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Trade Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Office Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Bad Debts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Travelling Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Etc., Etc. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To Net Profit (Transferred to Capital Account of the Trader) xxxx Profit and Loss Account for the year endedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Statement Form) Particulars Rs. Rs. Rs. Income From Sales: Sales à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Less: Sales Returns à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Sales Discount à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Net Sales à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Cost Of Goods Sold: Stock as on 1stJanuary à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Purchases à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Less: Purchase Returns à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Net Purchase à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Cost Of Goods available for sale à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Less: Stock as on 31stDecember à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. COGS (Cost Of Goods Sold) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Gross Profit xxxxxx Operating Expenses: Selling Expenses:- Sales Salary à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Advertising Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Insurance Expenses selling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Store Supplies Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Sundry Selling Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Total Selling Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. General Expenses: Office Salaries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Taxes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Insurance Expenses general à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Office Supplies Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Sundry General Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Total General Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Total Operating Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Net Profit from Operations xxxxxx Other Income: Rent Income à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Other Expenses: Interest Expenses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. NET PROFIT xxxxxx GIVEN BELOW IS THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT OF TATA STEEL LIMITED :- (This will help us understand the purpose of a Profit and Loss Account and also enable us to understand how a Profit and Loss statement is made.) Profit Loss Tata Steel Ltd Mar12 Mar11 Mar10 Mar09 12 Months 12 Months 12 Months 12 Months INCOME: Sales Turnover 37,005.71 31,901.94 26,757.60 26,843.53 Excise Duty 3,167.20 2,594.59 1,816.95 2,495.21 NET SALES 33,838.51 29,307.35 24,940.65 24,348.32 Other Income 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 TOTAL INCOME 34,389.27 29,635.26 25,272.24 24,653.68 EXPENDITURE: Manufacturing Expenses 5,608.38 4,463.65 3,803.33 3,349.96 Material Consumed 9,696.65 9,222.27 8,491.42 8,279.44 Personal Expenses 3,047.26 2,618.27 2,361.48 2,305.81 Selling Expenses 1,832.40 109.36 82.17 61.49 Administrative Expenses 2,119.56 1,922.33 1,622.77 1,518.83 Expenses Capitalised -478.23 -198.78 -326.11 -343.65 Provisions Made 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 TOTAL EXPENDITURE 21,826.02 18,137.10 16,035.06 15,171.88 Operating Profit 12,012.49 11,170.25 8,905.59 9,176.44 EBITDA 12,563.25 11,498.16 9,237.18 9,481.80 Depreciation 1,151.44 1,146.19 1,083.18 973.40 Other Write-offs 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 EBIT 11,411.81 10,351.97 8,154.00 8,508.40 Interest 1,925.42 1,686.27 1,848.19 1,489.50 EBT 9,486.39 8,665.70 6,305.81 7,018.90 Taxes 3,162.63 2,912.44 2,168.50 2,114.87 Profit and Loss for the Year 6,323.76 5,753.26 4,137.31 4,904.03 Non Recurring Items 372.66 1,107.89 909.49 297.71 Other Non Cash Adjustments 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Other Adjustments 0.00 4.54 0.00 0.00 REPORTED PAT 6,696.42 6,865.69 5,046.80 5,201.74 KEY ITEMS Preference Dividend 0.00 0.00 45.88 109.45 Equity Dividend 1,165.46 1,151.06 709.77 1,168.95 Equity Dividend (%) 119.97 119.97 79.98 159.95 Shares in Issue (Lakhs) 9,712.14 9,592.14 8,872.14 7,305.92 EPS Annualised (Rs) 68.95 71.58 56.88 71.20 [The portion highlighted by a black box shows the Profit earned by Tata Steel Limited from 2008 -2012] HOW THE PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT HELPS THE CORPORATE DECISION MAKERS TO SHAPE THEIR DECISIONS? A Profit and Loss account provides a collection of operating data that can be used by corporate decision makers to improve corporate operations. Regular review of this statement can help the entrepreneur to adjust the strategic paths of the company based on the prevailing economic conditions. A Profit and Loss statement also helps outside investors to measure a firms economic viability in the long run. Also; Analyzing a statement of profit and loss gives corporate leaders the tools necessary to measure competitors progress in the market, hence improve their market share. The Profit and Loss account gives a clear view of all the expenses and incomes of the firm, hence a regular analysis of these statements help firms cut down their expenses. Creating a forum through which business unit leaders discuss and help top leaders set performing segments apart from activities that generate less than mediocre revenue. By reviewing the firms revenues and expenses, management can decide which segment to sell. A profit-and-loss report indicates to the rest of the world the corporate segments that are thriving, emphasizing products that positively affect the corporate bottom line.

Cuban Missile Crisis Essay -- History, Russian Nuclear Weapon

The discovery of the nuclear missiles in Cuba was a vast turning point in the way that the world would progress in terms of communication and various entertainment and political positions from that point forward. Before the assumptions of the United States were proved about the Soviet Union holding nuclear weapons in Cuba, there was a great lack of communications between the nations that caused major conflict between these two nations. The moment the nations got connected many problems could be solved, but until that point in time, there was misunderstanding and an apprehension of the unknown among many people who inhabited the United Sates. The Cuban missile crisis was the beginning of a revolution in communications between nations, but the spark to a great deal of worry among the people of the United States and other surrounding nations. People just did not know what to believe when it came down to the effects that these nuclear weapons were going to have on the nation and the world as a whole. There was what could be considered a revolution as advancements showed up and new ideas and even cartoons came out, all with the universal basis of nuclear weapons. The positives outweigh the negatives on many levels and show that something that seemed so terrible really brought about many positive changes for the nation. The Cuban Missile Crisis began on October 14, 1962 when U-2 flight crews took photos over Cuba that were then analyzed meticulously by experts, who in turn found that there were in fact Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba (Compston, 228). The Soviet Union and the United States were exceptionally close to an all out nuclear war that could have wiped out the entire human population. Photos were taken from a spy plane... ..., there was a huge need for the Cuban Missile crisis to occur and for the missiles in Cuba to be discovered, for the reason that if it had not happened, then there would still be a lack of communication to this day, or there would have been for numerous years to come, and the nation as we know it may not still be standing. This event in history was significant because it in fact did lead to the connection of the world to each other and therefore eliminated abundant tribulations. The nations would never have been connected by something as necessary as a hotline as early as they were at the time. Ultimately, the positives outweighed the negatives in that the only true negative was fear, and this fear was the fear of the unknown. Even something that has the skin or cover of destruction and disaster can have an underlying reassurance of a positive ending or outcome.

Nora Essay -- essays research papers fc

Nora Nora Helmer, Ibsen’s strong-willed heroine is far from being a typical victim of male domination. She is master of the domestic world, dedicated enough to nurse her husband through illness, courageous enough to forge a signature and confident enough to pay back all her debts even in the face of enormous difficulties. But that is not what exactly sets her apart from convention—neither the energy or the initiative she exudes throughout, nor her decision to shatter her notions of marriage and seek independence. Rather, it is the intention or the motivation with which she carries herself throughout the text and more importantly the sub-text of the play that makes her different. Nora, despite her disenchantment and climactic decision, comes across as a less than innocent woman ambivalently portrayed, incredibly adept at manipulation and who does not, in the end, deserve the full sympathy that the thrust of the dominant narrative demands. She walks into a comfortably and tastefully furnished room, as soon as the play begins, with a bunch of parcels and immediately asks for the Christmas Tree to be hidden â€Å"carefully†, pops a few macaroons into her mouth and then cautiously goes to her husband’s door and listens, eventually remarking â€Å"Yes he is in.† The reason for such cautious behaviour seems quite uncertain as her husband’s presence inside the room is immaterial to her secretive actions (that of eating macaroons) as he is clearly out of sight, which makes us conjecture that perhaps such stealth is part of her normal behaviour. When Torvald does appear however, something that becomes very noticeable is the way Nora uses her movement, repetitively, like an application, to alleviate Torvald’s argumentative tone. For example, when her husband vehemently opposes the idea of borrowing, Helmer: †¦ and we will go on the same way for the short time longer that there need be any struggle. Nora: (moving towards the stove) As you please, Torvald. Helemer: (following her) Come, come, my little skylark must not droop her wings. What is this! Is my little skylark out of temper? (Taking out his purse.) Nora, what do you think I have got here? Nora: Money! Nora deliberately moves away from him, making Torvald uneasy of the emptiness, which results in his softening down and taking out the purse. Nora’s mood suddenly changes on seeing the bag. Remarkably, she repeats t... ...g† could never happen which is also why she was so terrified of it. She left blaming Torvald for something he wasn’t aware of, though he readily agreed to change himself for Nora, she left her children who loved playing hide and seek with her and took lodging at Mrs. Linde’s for the night. Ironically, Nora is the one who asked Mrs. Linde, â€Å"Tell me, is it really true that you did not love your husband? Why did you marry him?† Nora therefore proves herself to be ambiguous and very unreliable and even though forfeiting her family and a decision to face the world seems quite a large step for a dependent woman like her, Nora’s motivations remain deceptive as she is forever caught between the world of pretense and reality. Perhaps Nora realizes that, and when she does talk about â€Å"change† at the end of the play, she refers to herself being removed from the mask she is used to wearing. Bibliography Claridge, Laura. â€Å"Tess: A Less than Pure Woman.† Havel, Vaclav. â€Å"Writing for the Stage†, 1986. Ibsen, Henrik. A Doll’s House. trans. Farquharson Sharp. Bantam, 1958 Ingham, Patricia: â€Å"Fallen Woman as Sign† Miller, Arthur: â€Å"On Social Plays†, 1955.