Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essay

Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essay This assignment will examine the transformation of social welfare policy that was established and implemented during the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries to address the problem of poverty and to assist the poor at a time when rapid industrialisation hit Britain. These policies had been developed throughout this period using a combination of both state and charitable sector intervention that expanded and contracted at different levels within both sectors at different times. The assignment will be structured to incorporate the following distinct yet associated elements: Initially, I will explain what relief system/policy was in place to address rural and urban poverty leading up to the early part of the 19th century. Then, I will go on to set the environmental context in terms of how the rapid industrialisation that occurred in Britain could have contributed towards exacerbating the poverty being experienced by local communities and individuals during the early 19th century. I will then go on to concentrate on those policies and interventions that were introduced and/or endorsed by the state to specifically address poverty and help the poor; whilst considering in parallel, the differing perceptions of success and failure that surfaced during the implementation of these policies spanning a timeline of the 1800 1939 period. An integral part of this will include the differential categorisations and views on poverty that existed and subsequently evolved during this time period. Main body From the introduction of the Elizabethan Poor Law Act of 1601, those who were considered as deserving poor received relief from within their parish, which was subsidised by a compulsory poor rate levied on each parishs land and property owners. This was intended to give local control and responsibility for reducing the poverty being experienced by the poor, young, infirm or elderly within communities. These deserving poor were provided with what was termed Outdoor Relief in the form of either monetary payment or in-kind relief such as food, rent or clothes which enabled them to stay at home. Those who were classed as poor impotent people (2002, pg 11) and unable to help themselves, alongside the able bodied poor who were set to work, were provided with indoor relief within workhouses. This system continued well in to the late 18th century until the introduction of the Gilberts Act which advocated that workhouses should become poorhouses, run by poor law parish unions, to help only th e sick, the orphaned or the elderly. Joseph Townsend subsequently expressed his disapproval of this approach: and said that the workhouses operate like the figures which we set to scare the birds, till they have learnt first to despise them then to perch upon the objects of their terror. (Townsend 1788 cited in Spicker 1984, pg 10) The able-bodied poor could still claim outdoor relief but would be expected to find employment outside of the union workhouse, therefore poverty and poor relief problems became compounded further during a time of agricultural depression when wages were low and unemployment and population numbers were on the increase. By the early part of the 19th century the poor relief system was under significant strain as poor rates escalated, food prices were higher and the worlds first industrial society was spawned as industrialisation hit Britain. This was to be a period of rapid industrial advance and unprecedented urban growth; of major shifts in patterns of occupation (chiefly from agricultural to industrial and service) and of economic insecurity for many. (Kidd,1999; pg 4) Technological advancement moved into rural communities, and the agricultural labourer was replaced with more cost efficient machinery, such as horse powered threshing machines. This meant that agricultural workers and their families had little choice but to move to the more industrious towns and urban cities where wages were higher and there were more opportunities for work within factories, particularly in the textiles, transport and mining sectors. In reality, this optimistic view taken by those looking to escape the difficulties of the countryside and improve their standard of living would be faced with other prohibiting factors and subsequent poverty within the mass working class neighbourhoods would be harshly realised in various ways. Within the cities people were living in cheaply built, overcrowded terraced housing, which had inadequate sanitation and few amenities. Within the factories, conditions were no better as workers were subject to working unprotected around dangerous machinery, whilst working long hours for unduly low wages and receiving harsh punishments for non compliance. Similarly, employers could freely use child labour which they felt aided poor families by giving their children work from the age of five years upwards, much to the detriment of a childs education which was fated due to no enforced legislation being in place. In addition, there were increasingly instances of poor malnutrition that existed in families which was associated to the costly prices of food, therefore poor factory workers could usually only afford to buy rotten items. Taking into account all of these factors, the families of manual workers were always vulnerable to unemployment, sickness, old age or the death of the breadwinner, which reduced them to pauperism (Royle, 1997; pg 162) New Poor Law As population growth reached an unprecedented level, poor relief costs were also rising as more people were falling into a spiral of poverty and pauperism rather than benefiting from the increased wages and improved standard of living that optimists of the industrial revolution predicted. Politicians recognised that the current poor law system of 1601 needed to undergo considerable reform as there were clearly widespread frustrations on the back of what Malthus argued as providing encouragement to illegitimacy (Spicker et al 2007; pg 148) through the provision of family child allowance and that outdoor relief will diminish both the power and the will to save among the common people (Malthus cited in Kidd 1999; pg 21) inadvertently forcing more people towards poverty. Malthus subsequently concluded in saying that dependent poverty ought to be held disgraceful and the poor laws abolished. (Englander 1998; pg 9) Social reformer and laissez-faire economist Jeremy Bentham argued for a more disciplinary and corrective approach and believed in the primacy of the free competitive market in the solution of social problems. (Englander, 1998, pg 10) In 1832 in response to the pressures highlighted above a Royal Commission on the Poor Law was appointed, consisting of 9 members and several assistant commissioners ranging from economists to social reformers e.g. Edwin Chadwick. Their remit was to identify the flaws in the current poor relief system and make recommendations for a new, more cost efficient model for implementation. In the midst of this review, the first policy move against child labour occurred in the form of the Factory Act of 1833, whereby children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. (INSERT SOURCE) After much assessment of fact and statistics in conjunction with the previous influential ideas portrayed by Malthus and Bentham the New Poor Law Report was published in 1834, that concluded the law itself was the cause of poverty. This led to the subsequent endorsement of the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 that focused on the ethos of instilling a work discipline whilst controlling the costs of poor relief (Pierson, 2009). In order to do this, the act placed its emphasis on putting the deterrent workhouse at its core with the guiding concept of less eligibility which would distinguish between the able-bodied pauper and the independent poor and automatically weed out the merely work- shy from the truly indigent (Brundage, 2002; pg 35). Consequently, the pauper would experience poorer conditions within the workhouse than the lowest living standards of an independent labourer. The workhouse would resemble the layout and mechanics of a correctional institution, comprising segregation (a mongst different classes), uniformity, tedious work, a controlling discipline and the bare minimum in food and accommodation. This it was hoped would ultimately deter the able bodied from applying for indoor relief in favour of finding employment to survive, whilst simultaneously improving the ethical nature of the indolent people it housed and to encourage their eventual liberation. The Act also proposed to abolish all outdoor relief, however this actually persisted to provide assistance up until the 1840s as there were insufficient workhouses built to house the inevitable increase in paupers who would not get help outside. Another key feature that remained was the guardians control of the stringent settlement laws which would help avoid a large influx of paupers from the rural villages, thus keeping costs for the urban tax payer at a manageable level. At the start of the Victorian era in 1837 the view on poverty remained as one of self responsibility and character, whereby the individual was considered responsible for his/her own actions and subsequent survival in life irrespective of the environment they were living in. This opinion gathered momentum as people continually failed to or were reluctant to find a job, thus leading to the increased dependency on the state and little or no inclination to save money as a means of supporting themselves through difficult circumstances and into their old age. This became exacerbated further by those who simply ventured down the path of petty crime, sexual immorality, idleness and insobriety, which were defects which could be overcome by discipline and new attitudes (Townsend, 1993; pg 97); and thus further supported the principles and establishment of the deterrent workhouse system. As the 1840s progressed; the guardians began to reduce the levels of outdoor relief being distributed to the able bodied poor. People were becoming shamed and increasingly aware that to be considered for relief they would be expected to perform some work tasks with a view to accessing employment, otherwise they would be faced with the harsh reality of having to enter the workhouse with their families. Subsequently, people began to recognise the emerging stigma attached to relief and would focus their efforts on finding work and other means of assistance before succumbing to the indignities of the Poor Law and the ultimate indignity of a pauper funeral (Alcock et al, 2008; pg 13). This was similarly echoed by Jeremy Bentham who argued that people did what was pleasant and would not do what was unpleasant so that if people were not to claim relief, it had to be unpleasant (Spicker, 2007; pg 148) At this time the severe measures and conditions within the workhouse system were receiving a barrage of criticism and opposition from the religious sector and workers unions which led to the review and further amendments of the Amendment Act, removing the harshest measures of the workhouses. The Andover workhouse scandal, where conditions in the Andover Union Workhouse were found to be inhumane and dangerous, prompted a government review and the abolishment of the Poor Law Commission, which was replaced with a Poor Law Board. In 1842 Edwin Chadwick wrote and published a report made the statement that sanitation After the influenza and typhoid epidemics in 1837 and 1838, Edwin Chadwick was asked by the government to carry out a new enquiry into sanitation. His report, The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population was published in 1842. In the report Chadwick argued that disease was directly related to living conditions and that there was a desperate need for public health reform. Over 7,000 copies of the report was published and it helped create awareness of the need for government to take action in order to protect the lives of people living in Britains towns and cities. Sir Robert Peel and his Conservative administration were unwilling to support Chadwicks recommendations. A pressure group, the Health of Towns Association, was formed in an effort to persuade Peels government to take action. However, it was only after the 1847 General Election, when Lord John Russell became leader of a new Liberal government, that new legislation was introduced. In 1848 Parliament passed a Public Health Act that provided for the formation of a Central Board of Health. This new body had powers to create local boards to oversee street cleansing, refuse collection, water supply and sewerage systems Edwin Chadwick Sanitation Report (1842) Charitable/self help movement COS (1869) Slum clearance freeing up land for housing developers (1870) Charles Booth (class division/ income) / Seebohm Rowntree Sanitation/Environment studies Physical deterioration/health Boer War National fitness Committee on physical deterioration Settlement Houses to mix upper class in with poor communities Bibliography Alcock, C., Daly, G. and Griggs, E. (2008) Introducing Social Policy, 2nd ed., London: Longman Brundage, A. (2002) The English Poor Laws 1700-1930, Basingstoke: Palgrave Englander, D. (1998) Poverty and Poor Law Reform in 19th Century Britain, 1834-1914 From Chadwick to Booth, Harlow: Longman Kidd, A. (1999) State, Society and the Poor in Nineteenth-Century England,Basingstoke: Macmillan Royle, E. (1997) Modern Britain: A Social History 1750-1985, 2nd ed., London: Arnold Spicker, P. (1984) Stigma and Social Welfare, Kent: Croom Helm Spicker, P., Alvarez Leguizamon, S. and Gordon, D. (2007) Poverty: an international glossary, 2nd ed., London: Zed Townsend, P. (1993) The International Analysis of Poverty, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf

Graduation Speech :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

On behalf of the class of 2006, the second graduating class of Digital Arts at George Cogswell College, we would like to welcome you. It is an honor for us to have you here to celebrate this special day with us. This is the last day of our school year and the beginning of our professional life. It is also a day that we have worked very hard for and we know we could not have done it without your help. We have studied diligently in these past three years and experienced many changes in the digital technologies. Some of us had no idea what we were getting into. We had to deal with both the creative side and the technical side of the digital arts. The creative side was always fun! We had fun designing characters, and then animating them. We had fun analyzing filming and audio techniques, we had fun listening to each other's scripts. Acting class was most amusing! I will never forget our storytelling class. We came up with various weird and fascinating movements for our classmates to act out. But when we applied all of this creative fun stuff digitally, the technical side tormented us. There was always new software to learn, especially in animation programs. Our 3D animation classes were excruciating; we had to memorize more than a generous amount of technical terminology and a myriad of short-cut keys. We had to learn to think in 3D, to understand the relationship of our model from top view to side view and front view and pay attention to every detail; practically everything from modeling to material, texture, and animation. If we were not careful, our character's hands and feet would disappear into cyberspace! Besides that, there were computer problems to worry about. Some of us had experienced system crashes through power outages during the storm season. Others experienced file corruption a few weeks before the finals. There were many sleepless nights. In fact, one of us broke the school rules and stayed overnight just to get some work done, disregarding the alarm in the hall. After this incident, every night at closing time, the on-duty instructor walked around the computer rooms many times to make sure that no one was hiding under a table. I'll never forget those moments. (Now the school has installed alarms in all computer rooms at the new building; there just is no excuse to try to stay over night.

Guns, Germs and Steel Essay

The book Guns, Germs and Steel is an interesting impression of Jared Diamond to challenge and refresh our outlook towards the effect of politics to cultural and individual development as based from historical and theoretical concept. JD is a physiologist and evolutionary biologist and has made this work on a broader scope during his explorations in New Guinea to study the culture as well as the environment of the people. It started out in a prologue while Jared travels with his friend Yali, a New Guinean and questions the diminutive cargo of the locals against the bulk of cargos of the Eurasians. JD tried to explain to Yali by answering him with historical and theoretical views according to his research. JD said that while the natives own the land and the resources, the foreigners are capable of dominance because they are superior in technology as can be seen with their tools and machinery. But JD explained to Yali that what he sees is not proof of the superiority of the Eurasians over the natives but rather the opposite. JD said that Yali’s people are actually smarter and adaptable to any environment because they live in a world that has requires critical survival. Chapter 1 of the book discusses the origin of man and their discovery of tools and art as depicted from their paintings. JD theorizes that man made a great leap and used his intelligence 50,000 years ago as found on skeletons found in Australia and New Guinea. Accordingly, the Americans were probably colonized during 11,000 BC which correspond to the final stage of the Pleistocene Era and the melting of the ice in the last Ice Age. Chapter 2 details the war between the Maoris against the Morioris in Polynesia as early as 1835 in the Chatham islands and. Polynesia during that period has different set of climates, geography, resources and political and social conditions which lead to less diversification of human populations to be able to adapt in their environment. Chapter 3 details the conquest of European Francisco Pizarro and his men to capture Atahuallpa, the Inca emperor at Cajamarca, Peru in 1532. The superior weapons and their armor which were made of steel and the horses and cavalry pushes the natives out of their place while the Europeans brought along with them diseases such as smallpox and eventually infected and killed another native emperor of different tribe. JD pointed out that people of dominant culture has the foremost advantage over those who are less in technology and political organization as the Incas does not have. On Chapter 4 of the book, JD significantly emphasizes the importance of agriculture to propel the development of a fragile society because with the increase of food production there is a room for population to grow larger and stronger. Enough supply of food can sustain people to be more vigorous and organize themselves without resorting to violence to survive. An organized society can form political government to protect its people against conquest such as JD pointed out. In chapter 5, the author describes the technology of calibrating sites for food production by naming sites and crops suitable to grow in their environment while in chapter 6, 7 and 8 discusses his confidence the possibility of converting native hunters into agriculturist because of degeneration of wild games and animals in their environment. He said that there are already great varieties of plants and animals that can be domesticated and cultured and there is no need to hunt for food for a family to survive. JD gave an example in chapter 9 and 10 the success of the Indians in domesticating animals and prevents the extinction of wild animals in their forest. He said that breeding animals is one of the most accepted principles in domesticating animals that even wild species of animals can be bred in captivity. But this depends on the adaptability of animals with the climatic conditions on certain locality. Lack of animal adaptation means limited domestication and cultivation of animals and plants. The New World on the other hand is located on a tropical zone therefore people have more favorable climatic conditions as compared with the Eurasian countries. However, major infectious diseases or what JD calls â€Å"killers of humanity† mainly comes from animals men domesticates. He said that small pox originates from cowpox, flu from pigs and ducks and tuberculosis from cattle. These are only few of the negative impact on the cultivation of livestock by man that even people in the cities are not safe from certain diseases as they kept animals as pets. Industrialization gave man endemic diseases because he attracts germ carrying pests and we now have yellow fever, hookworm, bubonic plague and many other diseases transmitted by pests. Man also is a carrier of pest and diseases to his fellow human such as the body lice, sexually transmitted disease and other human infections. The following chapters introduced the origins of writings in early period of Mesoamerica and most part of Asia. JD significantly highlights necessity as the mother of invention and the invention of writings lead to the invention of the technology and then to arms for weapons and destruction. He said that the introduction of technology was also the beginning of civilizations to colonize other civilizations, destroying their population and their culture. The author also reviews the societal form of organization on a certain level which starts from the smaller faction or the band. The â€Å"band† is composed of people that are usually related by blood, nomadic in nature and have one ethnicity and language and no more than 5 to 80 people bonded together to be form a small society. The â€Å"tribe†, however has more people with fixed community, one ethnicity and language but being led by a leader in a societal form of government such as tribe in New Guinea and Australia . The â€Å"group† leads to chiefdoms and then to a larger extent which forms the state. The â€Å"state† have more than 50,000 people living in various villages, class and residence-based relationships. They also have more than one language, have centralized bureaucratic government levels and politicians to man the government, the law and the state. States have also their police and militaries to protect its citizenry against injustice. This was discussed on chapter 14. Chapter 15 to 16 depicts the Australian and New Guinean’ climate where Yali belongs. These two countries were formerly united as one large mass of land but separated because of the effect of large body of water 10,000 years ago. The following chapters discuss how China became the China of today which brought by forced unification of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Continuous fighting and dominance of Asian ethnicities in old China produces mixed races of different Asian origins but came up to have one traditional language which is the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Among these languages is the Mandarin. Chapter 17 is explained by JD on how the islands of the Pacific were able to be colonized by the Asians who arrived in New Guinea around 40,000 BC. This Asian group composes the ancestors of Philippine Negritos and formerly called the Austronesian. Their migrations began from China, reached Taiwan and then the Philippines at around 3000 BC. Those who came to Sumatra and Java became the Malayo-Polynesian while those who arrived in Northern New Guinea and Samoa became the Samoans. JD reviews on chapter 18 the factors which led to the European conquering Americas. The Europeans are better in food production, domestication of animals, producing metals and weapons, organization of armies, transportation and communication and solid political organization which the people of early America lacks. The people of the New World such as New Guinea, however are more primitive and backward and lacks capabilities to organize themselves. This was the reason why the Europeans or the Eurasians have been able to establish their colony in their nation without conflict and resistance. And finally chapter 19 discusses how the people of Africa came to be blacks. Accordingly, in the previous era, North Africans were whites who resemble Middle Eastern and Europeans and speak Afro-Asiatic languages. The pygmies or small black African people are mostly confined to Central Africa but were outnumbered by indigenous people. The blacks occupy only most of the Saharan Africa but extended their occupancy to the East coast to Cape town. From there they began to cultivate crops and domesticate animals and expand largely in numbers. The epilogue of this book answers Yali’s question on why whites have been so successful with their trades and always have larger cargos compared with the locals on a shipping trade comes to conclusion. The book answers his question by chapters and details. The effect of geographical formation and the environment clearly emphasizes the commencement of dominance by the Eurasian whites. Dominance factors illustrates the capability of the Eurasian to domesticate plant and animals better than the people of the New World, the speed of their technology which also sped up the rates of migration and their concrete population and size of their continents enable them to migrate and search for more opportunities to other continents. Furthermore, JD wants to search further with his study to come up with more variables that could defend his theory. He believes that he can only do this through natural historical experiments that need to be researched. These involve the history of human societies which are always intricate to understand than the lost dinosaurs of the old world (McGoodwin). Work Cited: McGoodwin, Michael. â€Å"Jared Diamond: Guns, Germs and Steel. † (2000). April 10, 2008 .

Ochre - The Oldest Known Natural Pigment in the World

Ochre (rarely spelled ocher and often referred to as yellow ochre) is one of a variety of forms of iron oxide which are described as earth-based pigments. These pigments, used by ancient and modern artists, are made of iron oxyhydroxide, which is to say they are natural minerals and compounds composed of varying proportions of iron (Fe3 or Fe2), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H). Other natural forms of earth pigments related to ochre include sienna, which is similar to yellow ochre but warmer in color and more translucent; and umber, which has goethite as its primary component and incorporates various levels of manganese. Red oxides or red ochres are hematite-rich forms of yellow ochres, commonly formed from aerobic natural weathering of iron-bearing minerals. Prehistoric and Historic Uses Natural iron-rich oxides provided red-yellow-brown paints and dyes for a wide range of prehistoric uses, including but in no way limited to rock art paintings, pottery, wall paintings and cave art, and human tattoos. Ochre is the earliest known pigment used by humans to paint our world--perhaps as long ago as 300,000 years. Other documented or implied uses are as medicines, as a preservative agent for animal hide preparation, and as a ​loading agent for adhesives (called  mastics). Ochre is often associated with human burials: for example, the Upper Paleolithic cave site of Arene Candide has an early use of ochre at a burial of a young man 23,500 years ago. The site of Paviland Cave in the UK, dated to about the same time, had a burial so soaked in red ochre he was (somewhat mistakenly) called the Red Lady. Natural Earth Pigments Before the 18th and 19th century, most pigments used by artists were of natural origin, made up of mixtures of organic dyes, resins, waxes, and minerals. Natural earth pigments like ochres consist of three parts: the principle color-producing component (hydrous or anhydrous iron oxide), the secondary or modifying color component (manganese oxides within umbers or carbonaceous material within brown or black pigments) and the base or carrier of the color (almost always clay, the weathered product of silicate rocks). Ochre is thought generally to be red, but in fact is a naturally-occurring yellow mineral pigment, consisting of clay, siliceous materials and the hydrated form of iron oxide known as limonite. Limonite is a general term referring to all forms of hydrated iron oxide, including goethite, which is the fundamental component of the ochre earths. Getting Red from Yellow Ochre contains a minimum of 12% iron oxyhydroxide, but the amount can range up to 30% or more, giving rise to the wide range of colors from light yellow to red and brown. The intensity of color depends on the degree of oxidation and hydration of the iron oxides, and the color becomes browner depending on the percentage of manganese dioxide, and redder based on the percentage of hematite. Since ochre is sensitive to oxidation and hydration, the yellow can be turned red by heating goethite (FeOOH) bearing pigments in yellow earth and converting some of it to hematite. Exposing yellow goethite to temperatures above 300 degrees Celcius will gradually dehydrate the mineral, converting it first to orange-yellow and then red as hematite is produced. Evidence of heat-treatment of ochre dates at least as early as the Middle Stone Age deposits in Blombos cave, South Africa. How Old Is Ochre Use? Ochre is very common on archaeological sites worldwide. Certainly, Upper Paleolithic cave art in Europe and Australia contain the generous use of the mineral: but ochre use is much older. The earliest possible use of ochre discovered so far is from a Homo erectus site about 285,000 years old. At the site called GnJh-03 in the Kapthurin formation of Kenya, a total of five kilograms (11 pounds) of ochre in more than 70 pieces was discovered. By 250,000-200,000 years ago, Neanderthals were using ochre, at the Maastricht Belvà ©dà ¨re site in The Netherlands (Roebroeks) and the Benzu rock shelter in Spain. Ochre and Human Evolution Ochre was part of the first art of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) phase in Africa called Howiesons Poort. The early modern human assemblages of 100,000-year-old MSA sites including Blombos Cave and Klein Kliphuis in South Africa have been found to include examples of engraved ochre, slabs of ochre with carved patterns deliberately cut into the surface. Spanish paleontologist Carlos Duarte (2014) has even suggested that using red ochre as a pigment in tattoos (and otherwise ingested) may have had a role in human evolution, as it would have been a source of iron directly to the human brain, perhaps making us smarter. The presence of ochre mixed with milk proteins on an artifact from a 49,000-year-old MSA level at Sibudu cave in South Africa is suggested to have been used to make the ochre liquid, probably by killing a lactating bovid (Villa 2015). Identifying the Sources The yellow-red-brown ochre pigments used in paintings and dyes are often a mixture of mineral elements, both in their natural state and as a result of deliberate mixing by the artist. Much of recent research on ochre and its natural earth relatives has been focused on identifying the specific elements of a pigment used in a particular paint or dye. Determining what a pigment is made up of allows the archaeologist to find out the source where the paint was mined or collected, which could provide information about long-distance trade. Mineral analysis helps in conservation and restoration practices; and in modern art studies, assists in the technical examination for authentication, identification of a specific artist, or the objective description of an artists techniques. Such analyses have been difficult in the past because older techniques required the destruction of some of the paint fragments. More recently, studies that use microscopic amounts of paint or even completely non-invasive studies such as various types of spectrometry, digital microscopy, x-ray fluorescence, spectral reflectance, and x-ray diffraction have been used successfully to split out the minerals used, and determine the type and treatment of the pigment. Sources Bu K, Cizdziel JV, and Russ J. 2013. The Source of Iron-Oxide Pigments Used in Pecos River Style Rock Paints. Archaeometry 55(6):1088-1100.Buti D, Domenici D, Miliani C, Garcà ­a Sà ¡iz C, Gà ³mez Espinoza T, Jà ­menez Villalba F, Verde Casanova A, Sabà ­a de la Mata A, Romani A, Presciutti F et al. 2014. Non-invasive investigation of a pre-Hispanic Maya screenfold book: the Madrid Codex. Journal of Archaeological Science 42(0):166-178.Cloutis E, MacKay A, Norman L, and Goltz D. 2016. Identification of historic artists pigments using spectral reflectance and X-ray diffraction properties I. Iron oxide and oxy-hydroxide-rich pigments. Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy 24(1):27-45.Dayet L, Le Bourdonnec FX, Daniel F, Porraz G, and Texier PJ. 2015. Ochre Provenance and Procurement Strategies During The Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Archaeometry:n/a-n/a.Dayet L, Texier PJ, Daniel F, and Porraz G. 2013. Ochre resources from the Middle Stone Age sequence of Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 40(9):3492-3505.Duarte CM. 2014. Red ochre and shells: clues to human evolution. Trends in Ecology Evolution 29(10):560-565.Eiselt BS, Popelka-Filcoff RS, Darling JA, and Glascock MD. 2011. Hematite sources and archaeological ochres from Hohokam and O’odham sites in central Arizona: an experiment in type identification and characterization. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(11):3019-3028.Erdogu B, and Ulubey A. 2011. Colour symbolism in the prehistoric architecture of central Anatolia and Raman Spectroscopic Investigation of red ochre in Chalcolithic Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k. Oxford Journal Of Archaeology 30(1):1-11.Henshilwood C, DErrico F, Van Niekerk K, Coquinot Y, Jacobs Z, Lauritzen S-E, Menu M, and Garcia-Moreno R. 2011. A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science 334:219-222.Moyo S, Mphuthi D, Cukrowska E, Henshilwood CS, van Niekerk K, and Chimuka L. 2016. Blombos Cave: Middle Stone Age ochre differentiation through FTIR, ICP OES, ED XRF and XRD. Quaternary International 404, Part B:20-29.Rifkin RF. 2012. Processing ochre in the Middle Stone Age: Testing the inference of prehistoric behaviours from actualistically derived experimental data. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31(2):174-195.Roebroeks W, Sier MJ, Kellberg Nielsen T, De Loecker D, Pares JM, Arps CES, and Mucher HJ. 2012. Use of red ochre by early Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(6):1889-1894.Villa P, Pollarolo L, Degano I, Birolo L, Pasero M, Biagioni C, Douka K, Vinciguerra R, Lucejko JJ, and Wadley L. 2015. A Milk and Ochre Paint Mixture Used 49,000 Years Ago at Sibudu, South Africa. PLoS ONE 10(6):e0131273.